Capela dos Ossos: Portugal's Chapel of Bones

Above the white-painted brick entrance to Capela dos Ossos, is a sign that reads, “Nós ossos que aqui estamos, pelos vossos esperamos.” Roughly, We bones, are here, waiting for you.” Capela dos Ossos is Portugal’s Chapel of Bones.

In 16^th century, the small city of Évora, Portugal was seemingly overwrought with cemeteries. In a period of growth, these cemeteries were taking up vast amounts of potentially valuable land. The area’s Franciscan monks were allotted the task of interring the remains elsewhere. However, the monks had a different idea.

The city of Évora in the few centuries since it’s Reconquest from Moorish rule was thriving. Especially under the rule of Manuel I and John III in the very late 15^th century through the beginning of the 16^th century. It had become an epicenter for the arts and humanities. However, the area monks grew troubled at the cities growth and at the resident’s fixation on material possessions.

Once the monks were given the task of relocating the remains for the cities many cemeteries (some accounts estimate the city had over 40 separate cemeteries), they came up with a plan to both move the remains, but also send a message to the city they felt was becoming corrupt. This is when they built the “Chapel of Bones”.

Capela dos Ossos is an interior chapel within Évora’s Igreja de São Francisco (Church of Saint Francis) made of white-painted brick—and bones. Nearly 5,000 sets of remains adorn the chapel’s walls, floors, and ceilings. Areas not covered with bones, are bricks painted with various images reflecting death. In one area of the Chapel, the remains of a child dangle from ropes overhead.

So, what is the dark lesson that those monks aimed to teach? They aimed to teach the population about the transitory nature of material goods and the inevitability of death for everyone—wealthy or otherwise. The idea is furthered by a poem, written almost 300 years later by local parish priest, Father Antonio da Ascencao, that is hanging from one of the Chapel’s pillars. It reads:

Aonde vais, caminhante, acelerado? Pára...não prossigas mais avante; Negócio, não tens mais importante, Do que este, à tua vista apresentado. Recorda quantos desta vida têm passado, Reflecte em que terás fim semelhante, Que para meditar causa é bastante Terem todos mais nisto parado. Pondera, que influido d'essa sorte, Entre negociações do mundo tantas, Tão pouco consideras na morte; Porém, se os olhos aqui levantas, Pára...porque em negócio deste porte, Quanto mais tu parares, mais adiantas. por Padre António da Ascenção

Where are you going in such a hurry traveler? Stop … do not proceed; You have no greater concern, Than this one: that on which you focus your sight. Recall how many have passed from this world, Reflect on your similar end, There is good reason to reflect If only all did the same. Ponder, you so influenced by fate, Among the many concerns of the world, So little do you reflect on death; If by chance you glance at this place, Stop … for the sake of your journey, The more you pause, the further on your journey you will be. by Fr. António da Ascenção (translation by Fr. Carlos A. Martins, CC)

Erected almost 500 years ago, Capela dos Ossos, continues to stand as a dark reflection on life’s inevitabilities. It helps visitors to contemplate what is most important in life and to help them look past their material possessions and to look inward.

"Capela dos Ossos Évora, Igreja de São Francisco." Visit Evora. December 26, 2017. Accessed February 20, 2018. http://www.visitevora.net/capela-ossos-evora/.

The Fight for Catalan Independence: A Timeline

If you follow world news at all, you’re at least somewhat aware that back in October, the region known as Catalonia declared independence from Spain. Just as quickly as this happened, the central Spanish government declared this move illegal and even arrested Catalan officials for rebellion. Over the past two-three months, more and more developments have arisen and frankly, it’s kind of confusing. Let’s begin with a bit of Catalan history to help explain the Catalan fight for independence.

9^th-15^th Century

The area of and around Barcelona (which would become the capital of Catalonia) was established in the 9^th century by Charlemagne to create a safeguard around what was remaining of Catholic Spain or the Frankish empire, and to separate itself from the Muslim-ruled areas of Spain and Portugal. Muslim rule did not decline in Spain until after 1492. Around this time, the rules of Aragon acquired Catalonia, although they allowed its inhabitants to keep their own identity, which even this early was very different from that greater Spain.

17^th-20^th Century

Following the Thirty Years War, Catalans grew increasingly hostile with Spanish leadership. Catalan peasants were forced to house Castilian troops, who were less than wonderful houseguests. This, paired with the growing debt to fund the war, Catalans revolted against the crown in an uprising known as “Corpus de Sang”. Their slogan was “Long live the land, death to bad government!”. This began The Reaper’s War, which briefly led to Catalonia’s first succession. Under French protection, Catalonia briefly declared itself a republic before it was re-occupied by Spanish troops. The 18^th and 19^th centuries both saw a similar tug-of-war for Catalan independence. Napoleon even briefly annexed Catalonia to France from 1812-1813 amidst the First Carlist War, another piece of Spain’s divisive history. This gave birth to the rise of Catalan nationalism in the first part of the 20^th century, leading to a cultural renaissance. Until 1936.

The 20^th Century

In 1936, General Francisco Franco (Bahamonde) came into power as Caudillo of Spain following the Spanish Civil War (For brevity’s sake, we’ll say “caudillo” basically means dictator here). While left-wing Spanish Republicans fought to keep Franco’s rule from affecting Catalonia and other regions that were once autonomous, Franco was able to run them out in 1939—thwarting the left-wing resistance all over Spain. Under his rule, all of Spain saw abolishment of various liberties. But throughout Franco’s reign, Catalonia saw an utter obliteration of its culture and language. Thousands of Catalan activists are exiled from Spain or even executed until the death of Franco in 1975.

The authoritarian state ended with the ascension of Juan Carlos I of Spain as King of Spain in 1975 after Franco’s death. He even dismissed high-ranking officials who wanted to continue authoritarian rule. In 1979, Catalonia was given a statute of autonomy and Catalan was recognized as a nationality. He also made Catalan a joint official language of Spain with Spanish. Catalonian even elected its own regional government.

21^st Century

              From 2009-2011, Catalonia hold various non-binding elections regarding their independence from Spain. However, in 2010 Spain’s central government in its capital, Madrid, decide that there is no “legal” basis for recognizing Catalan as an official nationality, much the Catalan’s disappointment. This came at a time as Spain is affected greatly by the Eurozone crisis. Catalonia even asked Spain for a bailout at this time. There’s growing social unrest as these events culminate.

From 2013-2016, a power struggle between the Spanish capital of Madrid and the Catalan capital of Barcelona begins to come to a head as Catalan parliament begins series talks of independence. In 2015, Catalonia begins the processes of seceding from Spain, and Spanish central courts quickly revoke the bids to secede. Throughout 2016 and 2017, we see the capitals and heads of state clash. Growing social unrest climaxes when, in October, Catalan declares independence from Spain. Spanish authorities physically intervene, and Spain declares direct rule. Catalan officials are arrested, and many are still incarcerated as the Catalan separatist party declares victory in elections and look to move forward with seceding from Spain, as of December.

              It remains to be seen how this crisis will pan out in 2018. Catalonia says it is moving forward after it’s October referendum to declare independence. Every week we seen new implications for Spain, Catalonia and Europe overall in this predicament. Earlier this week, the football world was up in arms regarding Barcelona player Lionel Messi, who said he would become a free agent if Barcelona is no longer part of the Spanish league. The Spanish government has numerously stated they would revoke Barcelona’s participation in the league. Clearly, football isn’t going to stop Catalonia from achieving its goal of independence, but it does show how this decision is affecting various aspects of European culture. We will continue to watch and chronicle this fight for independence as it grows increasingly tense. 

Changes and such.

You may have noticed I have changed the name of this blog. I have decided to include greater Spain in my posts. All of Spain and Iberia are greatly important to the globe. The Spanish Empire had many settlements in the Southeastern United States (including San Miguel de Guadalupe, which I posted about a few months ago. I plan to revisit this subject soon). Therefore, I felt the need to encompass all of Spain into my blog.

The title, obviously if you're a history/literary nerd, relates to Don Quixote. The original stories written by Miguel de Cervantes about the fictional hidalgo, Alonso Quixano, in his search for adventure in 16th-17th century Spain.

About my absence for the past few months: I have taken on extra classes and, of course, it was the holiday season. Who isn't busy this time of year? I've also taken on some new responsibilities in my real job. Unfortunately, I had to put posting on the back burner. But alas, I am here now. I should have a new post up in the coming days.

Thanks for reading!

In 1946, Salvador Dali did several sketches and paintings inspired by Don Quixote. I was EXTREMELY excited to see most of them, in addition to his Alice in Wonderland paintings, last spring as the exhibit came to the Columbia Museum of Art in Columbia, SC. They. Were. Amazing.

How the Spanish Inquisition Created the Witch Stereotype

            It’s officially fall and Halloween is just a few weeks away. Halloween means a lot of different things to many different people but an image that is synonymous with Halloween is the clichéd image of the witch. Witches have been depicted throughout history in many different forms. However, the iconic portrayal of the witch, at least in the Western world, is that of an older woman with a straw broom and a black cat. But where did that depiction originate?

            King Ferdinand II of Aragon and his wife, Isabella of Castile, established the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 to combat religions they felt were a threat to Catholicism. Spain and the Iberian Peninsula had long been dominated by the Moors who allowed other religions to be tolerated (for a small fee, of course) since 711 A.D. with the invasion of the Umayyad Caliphate. By the end of 1492, the last Islamic domino (Grenada) had fallen. Essentially, by this time, anyone not practicing Catholicism was considered a heretic and many of them were imprisoned, tortured and executed. But throughout the Inquisition, many normal facets of European life were being molded by the Catholic church to equate to acts of what they deemed evil. One of these facets was the job of the alewife.

            For over a century, the job of making and selling ale, or beer, belonged, for the most part, to women—single women. Most of them were either unmarried or widowed and brewed ale to pay their debts. And most of these women kept cats around. This was for two reasons. One, the cats were great company while you were working alone all-day brewing, but perhaps the more important reason was to keep the mice at bay. Mice were rampant through many villages in Europe and could get into the grain used in the ale, so the cats were most certainly a business asset.

            Another essential part of the job of the alewife was to let people know you are selling. In an era when many citizens could not read, shops used various symbols instead of the large signs on business awnings we see today. You may be familiar with three sphere symbols and that it represents pawnbrokers or pawn shops. For alewives, it had to be something they had on hand and they chose the broom. A straw broom was leaned against the front of a home to indicate that there was an alewife here. If the broom was turned upside down and leaned in the same manner, it meant there was fresh ale. In addition to this marketing tactic, alewives also commonly wore a tall, wide-brimmed hat to make themselves more identifiable in public. However, these strategies did not bode well for these women.

            During the Spanish Inquisition, these women were soon deemed as unholy. An unmarried woman making spirits? Galivanting around town with no husband or chaperone? There were rumors circulating that the women were “witch doctors” and were poisoning men with their spirits or were just seen as unholy for their behavior. The caricatures of these women in newspapers portrayed them as the pointy-hat-wearing, broom-riding witches that we see in everything from Looney Tunes to Halloween shops. Soon these women were likened to the same as the heretics being prosecuted due to the Inquisition. Eventually, many of these women were tried for heresy or were told they were no longer allowed to brew ale. Meaning, men soon took over the spirit industry—and the growing wealth from that practice. Another unfortunate fatality of the Spanish Inquisition. 

 Sketch of Mother Louise, a very popular alewife in the 14th century.

Why ISIS Targeted Spain: A Pocket-Sized History Lesson

              After two attacks on August 17 in Barcelona and Cambrils, Spain left fourteen dead, Islamic State (also known as ISIS or Daesh) released a video claiming responsibility for the attacks. In the video, released early last week, we hear a member of Islamic State speak Spanish, for the very first time, in addition to Arabic. In the video, he says, “Allah willing, Al-Andalus will become again what it was, part of the caliphate. Spanish Christians, don’t forget the Muslim blood spilt during the Spanish inquisition. We will take revenge for your massacre, the one you are carrying out now against Islamic State.” Another militant added that they do not plan to stop these attacks on civilians.

              So, what is “Al-Andalus”, many have asked. Al-Andalus is the name for the Iberian Peninsula during the type of Islamic occupation. This began in 711 CE with the invasion of the Umayyad Caliphate and ended in 1492—the same year Columbus set sail for the Americas at the bequest of the Crown of Castile.  The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major caliphates to be established after the death of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, in 632 CE. One key factor to remember regarding the Umayyad Dynasty is that they were quite secular, especially in comparison to the later Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula that was completely intolerant of those who were not Catholic. Muhammad has spoken about letting those who practice other Abrahamic religions to be able to continue to do so.  The Umayyad created the jizya taxation wherein those who were not Muslim paid a percentage to the dynasty to live in lands ruled by the Caliph. Women, children, those deemed mentally unstable, or those only temporarily living in the lands were not required to pay. In some cases, those who were Jewish or Christian were treated as second-class citizens or did not have enough to pay the jizya, and they converted to Islam. The jizya extended even when the Umayyad invaded Gibraltar in 711 CE and began extending into modern-day Portugal, Spain, and even into parts of France.

              In 732 CE, the slow downfall of Al-Andalus began as the Charles Martel and his army defeated Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi at the Battle of Poitiers (Tours) and the Islamic army was driven out of modern-day France. For the next centuries after many quarrels, revolts and Caliphate changes, the only remaining area of Al-Andalus was Emirate of Granada. Granada was also home to many Muslims and Jews who were fleeing the persecution of the Reconquista, which had grown immensely deadly by this time. In 1469, the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon beckoned the fall of the last domino in Al-Andalus. The Crown declared a war on all Muslims and later Pope Sixtus IV declared the war a “crusade”. Efforts to extinguish all non-Catholics from Iberia intensified. The Treaty of Grenada was signed November 25, 1491, and the city of Granada fell on January 2, 1492. Per the treaty, the Capitulations of 1492 allowed Muslims still residing in Grenada could continue practicing their religion. However, Spanish promises of tolerance did not last. By 1502, the Crown began forced conversions on all who practiced any religion other than Catholicism and various sentencing for those who refused. Those who refused were expelled or killed. This lasted for another two centuries before Spain believed it had eradicated Islam.

              In the video, one ISIS member says, "With God's permission, Al-Andalus will once again be the land of the caliphate." When we look at what transpired in Barcelona and Cambrils this month, it is clearly an act of terrorism. There is a dark history regarding Islam, especially throughout Europe. But there is no justifying the mass murders of citizens no matter how well you gift wrap your rhetoric in victimhood.  

Image depicting a Jewish cantor reading the Passover story in Al-Andalus, from a 14th century Spanish Haggadah. Artist Unknown.