Todos somos Calaveras: The Traditions of Día de los Muertos

   

A celebration of life is not what comes to mind to most non-Hispanic individuals when they hear about Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead), but that is precisely what defines this important holiday. Dating back to other holidays in Ancient Mesoamerica (think Mexico and Latin America) in which different indigenous groups celebrated lost loved ones, and after the Spanish colonization of those lands, they all became what we see observed today as Día de los Muertos.

            The holiday is often seen as “Mexican Halloween”, which is far from the fact. While Halloween celebrates mischief and death, where we don costumes, eat candy and watch horror movies, Day of the Dead fondly honors the memory of loved ones long gone. Some celebrators do dress in costume, usually painting their faces to resemble calaveritas de azucar (sugar skulls) and women wear crowns comprised of cempasúchil, a type of marigold that grows only in Latin America. During the forty-eight-hour celebration, alters, called ofrendas, are built to honor the dead. Gifts are left on the alters; gifts of toys and candies are generally left at the graves of children. A common offering of food is left at each ofrenda. Pan de muerto (literally the “bread of the dead”) is a traditional sweet bread, decorated with bones, candy tears, and more, is a common feature at the alters of dead loved ones.[1]

            Many other traditions surrounding Día de los Muertos remain in place including ancient indigenous observations. In the city of Pátzcuaro, indigenous peoples paddle out to the island of Janitzio to burn candles in what is an all-night vigil (known as Noche de Muertos) at an indigenous cemetery.[2] And in the city of Aguascalientes, Día de los Muertos marks the beginning of their week-long Festival de Calaveras.[3]

            The traditions of Day of the Dead have lasted for centuries. However, in Brazil, recently elected President Jair Bolsonaro has created fear among Brazilians, as he as immediately announced rollbacks on protections for indigenous peoples and lands.[4] It’s difficult to say (or imagine) what lies ahead for the future of indigenous peoples and their traditions in Brazil, such as Finados (Day of the Dead, Brazil). As this Day of the Dead approaches us, we should stay conscious that the Day of the Dead isn’t “Mexican Halloween” but a significant (possibly endangered) holiday.

Photo Credit: Erik Ruiz

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[1] Betty Cortina, "Celebrating Dia De Los Muerto: Pan De Muerto," NBC Latino, November 01, 2012, http://nbclatino.com/2012/11/01/celebrating-dia-de-los-muerto-pan-de-muerto/.

[2] "Day of the Dead/ Night of the Dead," Lake Patzcuaro, http://www.lakepatzcuaro.org/DayOfDead.html.

[3] "Festival De Calaveras," Viva Aguascalientes, https://vivaaguascalientes.com/en/festival-de-calaveras/.

[4] Scott Wallace, "Brazil's New Leader Promised to Exploit the Amazon-but Can He?" National Geographic. October 31, 2018, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/10/brazil-president-jair-bolsonaro-promises-exploit-amazon-rain-forest/.

Buenaventura Durruti, The Anarchist Who Fought Fascism Head-On

“It is we [the workers] who built these palaces and cities, here in Spain and in America and everywhere. We, the workers. We can build others to take their place. And better ones! We are not in the least afraid of ruins. We are going to inherit the earth. There is not the slightest doubt about that. The bourgeoisie might blast and ruin its own world before it leaves the stage of history. We carry a new world here, in our hearts. [...] That world is growing in this minute.”

-Buenaventura Durruti

In the years following the First World War, fascism spread like wildfire throughout Western Europe. While Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler were just getting their footing, an exiled General named Francisco Franco was plotting an uprising against the newly-elected Leftist government of Spain called the Popular Front. His uprising was aided by Italy and Germany. In response to the rebellion, Leftists of all leanings took up arms to fight fascism. One of those militants was Anarchist, Buenaventura Durruti.

Buenaventura Durruti was born July 14, 1896, one of eight siblings, the son of a railway worker. Later in life, he recalled his father working constantly and yet he and his brothers having to go without food. He left school at age 14 to work on the rails with his father, joining a union. In his twenties, he participated in a strike that resulted in military intervention. Within three days, the Spanish army killed seventy strikers, while wounding an additional 500 and arresting another 2,000.

After the deadly strike, Durruti fled to Paris, where he would live for three years before returning to Spain and meeting other syndicalists and forming Los Justicieros, a paramilitary anarchist group. After an unsuccessful assassination attempt on King Alfonso XIII, he moved to Barcelona to organize and assist other anarchists who were being persecuted. He, along with other syndicalists formed Los Solidarios, a group that in 1923 would assassinate Cardinal Juan Soldevilla y Romera after the Cardinal had hired gunmen to murder and/or otherwise terrorize union members throughout Spain.  Throughout the late 1920s, Durruti and other members of Los Solidarios fled to Cuba.

On February 16, 1936, the Popular Front won the Spanish general election. The front encompassed a vast array of Leftists from Democratic Socialists to Anarchists. After this win, violence ensued throughout Spain. The Left saw especial resistance with both professional military officials and the Catholic Church. General Franco declared war on July 18, 1936. Early on, the Left dominated the rebels. Durruti coordinated an armed resistance and led troops of armed Anarchists into battle.

Just weeks after the initial battles of the civil war, Durruti was interviewed by Pierre van Paasen, a journalist for the Toronto Star where he described why he fights.

“For us, it is a matter of crushing Fascism once and for all. No government in the world fights Fascism to the death. When the bourgeoisie sees power slipping from its grasp, it has recourse to Fascism to maintain itself. [They] could have rendered the Fascist elements powerless long ago. Instead, it compromised and dallied. Even now at this moment, there are men in [our government] who want to go easy on the rebels.”[1]

The recourse he spoke of was the back and forth swinging of the political pendulum of the Spanish governments in the years following the abdication of Alfonso XIII in 1931.

On November 12, 1936, Durruti led his militia into Madrid to defend the city from rebels. On the 19^th of November, he was shot while leading a counterattack. While being treated for the wounds at a hospital within the city, he was informed that the facility was to be evacuated. The following account is by Julio Grave, who acted as Durruti’s chauffeur:

"We passed a little group of hotels which are at the bottom of this avenue [Avenida de la Reina Victoria] and we turned towards the right. Arriving at the big street, we saw a group of militiamen coming towards us. Durruti thought it was some young men who were leaving the front. This area was completely destroyed by the bullets coming from the Clinical Hospital, which had been taken during these days by the Moors and which dominated all the environs. Durruti had me stop the car which I parked in the angle of one of those little hotels as a precaution. Durruti got out of the auto and went towards the militiamen. He asked them where they were going. As they didn't know what to say, he ordered them to return to the front. The militiamen obeyed and Durruti returned towards the car. The rain of bullets became stronger. From the vast red heap of the clinical hospital, the Moors and the Guardia Civil were shooting furiously. Reaching the door of the machine, Durruti collapsed, a bullet through his chest."[2]

The Spanish War would continue until April 1939, with the Soviet Union aiding the Left and both Germany and Italy aiding Franco’s rebels. General Franco became El Caudillo (“the leader”) de España and ruled under a military regime for just under forty years. The Spanish Civil War would be a precursor the Second World War but differing greatly as Fascism was not defeated. In fact, Franco remained dictator decades after the deaths of Hitler and Mussolini.

Buenaventura Durruti and his contemporaries may have lost the war, but his spirit, his legend, and his rhetoric continue to live on.

Durruti, 1936.

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[1] Pierre Van Paasen, "Buenaventura Durruti Interview," Libcom.org, 1936, accessed April 07, 2018, https://libcom.org/history/buenaventura-durruti-interview-pierre-van-paasen.

[2] Abel Paz, Durruti: The People Armed (Nottingham: Spokesman Books, 1976).

Juan de Pareja, Afro-Spanish Artist From the Court of Phillip IV

    

                Spanish Baroque painter, Juan de Pareja’s life is enigmatic. Born into slavery around 1606 in the city of Comarca, near Antequera, his lineage is somewhat mysterious. It’s widely believed he was born to a young woman of African descent and a white Spanish father, possibly Moorish.[1] He came to be owned by painter, Diego Velazquez, lead artist in the court of King Phillip IV, around 1630, acting as his assistant. Sometime around 1631, Velazquez freed Pareja and the two worked together in his studio until Velazquez’ death in 1660. Pareja spent most of his life in Velazquez’ shadow, but on his own he was a magnificent painter in the Baroque style that was popular during Spain’s Golden Age. Over his lifetime, and after, he became the subject of many works of art. Diego Velazquez, himself painted a portrait of Pareja in 1649. He’s been the subject of many other famous artists’ works, including Salvador Dali. There are only ten existing known works of Pareja’s in the world. One of them, his portrait of King Philip IV, is on display at the Columbia Museum of Art in Columbia, SC. The few known works by Juan de Pareja, show the complex and intricate work that so many artists of his era, and others, tried to achieve, but he remains relatively unknown.

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[1] "Juan de Pareja," Encyclopædia Britannica, January 30, 2018, , accessed March 09, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-de-Pareja.

Portrait of Pareja by Diego Velazquez, ca. 1649.

Portrait of Juan de Pareja Adjusting a String on His Mandolin by Salvador Dali, ca. 1960.

Capela dos Ossos: Portugal's Chapel of Bones

Above the white-painted brick entrance to Capela dos Ossos, is a sign that reads, “Nós ossos que aqui estamos, pelos vossos esperamos.” Roughly, We bones, are here, waiting for you.” Capela dos Ossos is Portugal’s Chapel of Bones.

In 16^th century, the small city of Évora, Portugal was seemingly overwrought with cemeteries. In a period of growth, these cemeteries were taking up vast amounts of potentially valuable land. The area’s Franciscan monks were allotted the task of interring the remains elsewhere. However, the monks had a different idea.

The city of Évora in the few centuries since it’s Reconquest from Moorish rule was thriving. Especially under the rule of Manuel I and John III in the very late 15^th century through the beginning of the 16^th century. It had become an epicenter for the arts and humanities. However, the area monks grew troubled at the cities growth and at the resident’s fixation on material possessions.

Once the monks were given the task of relocating the remains for the cities many cemeteries (some accounts estimate the city had over 40 separate cemeteries), they came up with a plan to both move the remains, but also send a message to the city they felt was becoming corrupt. This is when they built the “Chapel of Bones”.

Capela dos Ossos is an interior chapel within Évora’s Igreja de São Francisco (Church of Saint Francis) made of white-painted brick—and bones. Nearly 5,000 sets of remains adorn the chapel’s walls, floors, and ceilings. Areas not covered with bones, are bricks painted with various images reflecting death. In one area of the Chapel, the remains of a child dangle from ropes overhead.

So, what is the dark lesson that those monks aimed to teach? They aimed to teach the population about the transitory nature of material goods and the inevitability of death for everyone—wealthy or otherwise. The idea is furthered by a poem, written almost 300 years later by local parish priest, Father Antonio da Ascencao, that is hanging from one of the Chapel’s pillars. It reads:

Aonde vais, caminhante, acelerado? Pára...não prossigas mais avante; Negócio, não tens mais importante, Do que este, à tua vista apresentado. Recorda quantos desta vida têm passado, Reflecte em que terás fim semelhante, Que para meditar causa é bastante Terem todos mais nisto parado. Pondera, que influido d'essa sorte, Entre negociações do mundo tantas, Tão pouco consideras na morte; Porém, se os olhos aqui levantas, Pára...porque em negócio deste porte, Quanto mais tu parares, mais adiantas. por Padre António da Ascenção

Where are you going in such a hurry traveler? Stop … do not proceed; You have no greater concern, Than this one: that on which you focus your sight. Recall how many have passed from this world, Reflect on your similar end, There is good reason to reflect If only all did the same. Ponder, you so influenced by fate, Among the many concerns of the world, So little do you reflect on death; If by chance you glance at this place, Stop … for the sake of your journey, The more you pause, the further on your journey you will be. by Fr. António da Ascenção (translation by Fr. Carlos A. Martins, CC)

Erected almost 500 years ago, Capela dos Ossos, continues to stand as a dark reflection on life’s inevitabilities. It helps visitors to contemplate what is most important in life and to help them look past their material possessions and to look inward.

"Capela dos Ossos Évora, Igreja de São Francisco." Visit Evora. December 26, 2017. Accessed February 20, 2018. http://www.visitevora.net/capela-ossos-evora/.

The Fight for Catalan Independence: A Timeline

If you follow world news at all, you’re at least somewhat aware that back in October, the region known as Catalonia declared independence from Spain. Just as quickly as this happened, the central Spanish government declared this move illegal and even arrested Catalan officials for rebellion. Over the past two-three months, more and more developments have arisen and frankly, it’s kind of confusing. Let’s begin with a bit of Catalan history to help explain the Catalan fight for independence.

9^th-15^th Century

The area of and around Barcelona (which would become the capital of Catalonia) was established in the 9^th century by Charlemagne to create a safeguard around what was remaining of Catholic Spain or the Frankish empire, and to separate itself from the Muslim-ruled areas of Spain and Portugal. Muslim rule did not decline in Spain until after 1492. Around this time, the rules of Aragon acquired Catalonia, although they allowed its inhabitants to keep their own identity, which even this early was very different from that greater Spain.

17^th-20^th Century

Following the Thirty Years War, Catalans grew increasingly hostile with Spanish leadership. Catalan peasants were forced to house Castilian troops, who were less than wonderful houseguests. This, paired with the growing debt to fund the war, Catalans revolted against the crown in an uprising known as “Corpus de Sang”. Their slogan was “Long live the land, death to bad government!”. This began The Reaper’s War, which briefly led to Catalonia’s first succession. Under French protection, Catalonia briefly declared itself a republic before it was re-occupied by Spanish troops. The 18^th and 19^th centuries both saw a similar tug-of-war for Catalan independence. Napoleon even briefly annexed Catalonia to France from 1812-1813 amidst the First Carlist War, another piece of Spain’s divisive history. This gave birth to the rise of Catalan nationalism in the first part of the 20^th century, leading to a cultural renaissance. Until 1936.

The 20^th Century

In 1936, General Francisco Franco (Bahamonde) came into power as Caudillo of Spain following the Spanish Civil War (For brevity’s sake, we’ll say “caudillo” basically means dictator here). While left-wing Spanish Republicans fought to keep Franco’s rule from affecting Catalonia and other regions that were once autonomous, Franco was able to run them out in 1939—thwarting the left-wing resistance all over Spain. Under his rule, all of Spain saw abolishment of various liberties. But throughout Franco’s reign, Catalonia saw an utter obliteration of its culture and language. Thousands of Catalan activists are exiled from Spain or even executed until the death of Franco in 1975.

The authoritarian state ended with the ascension of Juan Carlos I of Spain as King of Spain in 1975 after Franco’s death. He even dismissed high-ranking officials who wanted to continue authoritarian rule. In 1979, Catalonia was given a statute of autonomy and Catalan was recognized as a nationality. He also made Catalan a joint official language of Spain with Spanish. Catalonian even elected its own regional government.

21^st Century

              From 2009-2011, Catalonia hold various non-binding elections regarding their independence from Spain. However, in 2010 Spain’s central government in its capital, Madrid, decide that there is no “legal” basis for recognizing Catalan as an official nationality, much the Catalan’s disappointment. This came at a time as Spain is affected greatly by the Eurozone crisis. Catalonia even asked Spain for a bailout at this time. There’s growing social unrest as these events culminate.

From 2013-2016, a power struggle between the Spanish capital of Madrid and the Catalan capital of Barcelona begins to come to a head as Catalan parliament begins series talks of independence. In 2015, Catalonia begins the processes of seceding from Spain, and Spanish central courts quickly revoke the bids to secede. Throughout 2016 and 2017, we see the capitals and heads of state clash. Growing social unrest climaxes when, in October, Catalan declares independence from Spain. Spanish authorities physically intervene, and Spain declares direct rule. Catalan officials are arrested, and many are still incarcerated as the Catalan separatist party declares victory in elections and look to move forward with seceding from Spain, as of December.

              It remains to be seen how this crisis will pan out in 2018. Catalonia says it is moving forward after it’s October referendum to declare independence. Every week we seen new implications for Spain, Catalonia and Europe overall in this predicament. Earlier this week, the football world was up in arms regarding Barcelona player Lionel Messi, who said he would become a free agent if Barcelona is no longer part of the Spanish league. The Spanish government has numerously stated they would revoke Barcelona’s participation in the league. Clearly, football isn’t going to stop Catalonia from achieving its goal of independence, but it does show how this decision is affecting various aspects of European culture. We will continue to watch and chronicle this fight for independence as it grows increasingly tense.