Changes and such.

You may have noticed I have changed the name of this blog. I have decided to include greater Spain in my posts. All of Spain and Iberia are greatly important to the globe. The Spanish Empire had many settlements in the Southeastern United States (including San Miguel de Guadalupe, which I posted about a few months ago. I plan to revisit this subject soon). Therefore, I felt the need to encompass all of Spain into my blog.

The title, obviously if you're a history/literary nerd, relates to Don Quixote. The original stories written by Miguel de Cervantes about the fictional hidalgo, Alonso Quixano, in his search for adventure in 16th-17th century Spain.

About my absence for the past few months: I have taken on extra classes and, of course, it was the holiday season. Who isn't busy this time of year? I've also taken on some new responsibilities in my real job. Unfortunately, I had to put posting on the back burner. But alas, I am here now. I should have a new post up in the coming days.

Thanks for reading!

In 1946, Salvador Dali did several sketches and paintings inspired by Don Quixote. I was EXTREMELY excited to see most of them, in addition to his Alice in Wonderland paintings, last spring as the exhibit came to the Columbia Museum of Art in Columbia, SC. They. Were. Amazing.

How the Spanish Inquisition Created the Witch Stereotype

            It’s officially fall and Halloween is just a few weeks away. Halloween means a lot of different things to many different people but an image that is synonymous with Halloween is the clichéd image of the witch. Witches have been depicted throughout history in many different forms. However, the iconic portrayal of the witch, at least in the Western world, is that of an older woman with a straw broom and a black cat. But where did that depiction originate?

            King Ferdinand II of Aragon and his wife, Isabella of Castile, established the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 to combat religions they felt were a threat to Catholicism. Spain and the Iberian Peninsula had long been dominated by the Moors who allowed other religions to be tolerated (for a small fee, of course) since 711 A.D. with the invasion of the Umayyad Caliphate. By the end of 1492, the last Islamic domino (Grenada) had fallen. Essentially, by this time, anyone not practicing Catholicism was considered a heretic and many of them were imprisoned, tortured and executed. But throughout the Inquisition, many normal facets of European life were being molded by the Catholic church to equate to acts of what they deemed evil. One of these facets was the job of the alewife.

            For over a century, the job of making and selling ale, or beer, belonged, for the most part, to women—single women. Most of them were either unmarried or widowed and brewed ale to pay their debts. And most of these women kept cats around. This was for two reasons. One, the cats were great company while you were working alone all-day brewing, but perhaps the more important reason was to keep the mice at bay. Mice were rampant through many villages in Europe and could get into the grain used in the ale, so the cats were most certainly a business asset.

            Another essential part of the job of the alewife was to let people know you are selling. In an era when many citizens could not read, shops used various symbols instead of the large signs on business awnings we see today. You may be familiar with three sphere symbols and that it represents pawnbrokers or pawn shops. For alewives, it had to be something they had on hand and they chose the broom. A straw broom was leaned against the front of a home to indicate that there was an alewife here. If the broom was turned upside down and leaned in the same manner, it meant there was fresh ale. In addition to this marketing tactic, alewives also commonly wore a tall, wide-brimmed hat to make themselves more identifiable in public. However, these strategies did not bode well for these women.

            During the Spanish Inquisition, these women were soon deemed as unholy. An unmarried woman making spirits? Galivanting around town with no husband or chaperone? There were rumors circulating that the women were “witch doctors” and were poisoning men with their spirits or were just seen as unholy for their behavior. The caricatures of these women in newspapers portrayed them as the pointy-hat-wearing, broom-riding witches that we see in everything from Looney Tunes to Halloween shops. Soon these women were likened to the same as the heretics being prosecuted due to the Inquisition. Eventually, many of these women were tried for heresy or were told they were no longer allowed to brew ale. Meaning, men soon took over the spirit industry—and the growing wealth from that practice. Another unfortunate fatality of the Spanish Inquisition. 

 Sketch of Mother Louise, a very popular alewife in the 14th century.

Why ISIS Targeted Spain: A Pocket-Sized History Lesson

              After two attacks on August 17 in Barcelona and Cambrils, Spain left fourteen dead, Islamic State (also known as ISIS or Daesh) released a video claiming responsibility for the attacks. In the video, released early last week, we hear a member of Islamic State speak Spanish, for the very first time, in addition to Arabic. In the video, he says, “Allah willing, Al-Andalus will become again what it was, part of the caliphate. Spanish Christians, don’t forget the Muslim blood spilt during the Spanish inquisition. We will take revenge for your massacre, the one you are carrying out now against Islamic State.” Another militant added that they do not plan to stop these attacks on civilians.

              So, what is “Al-Andalus”, many have asked. Al-Andalus is the name for the Iberian Peninsula during the type of Islamic occupation. This began in 711 CE with the invasion of the Umayyad Caliphate and ended in 1492—the same year Columbus set sail for the Americas at the bequest of the Crown of Castile.  The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major caliphates to be established after the death of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, in 632 CE. One key factor to remember regarding the Umayyad Dynasty is that they were quite secular, especially in comparison to the later Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula that was completely intolerant of those who were not Catholic. Muhammad has spoken about letting those who practice other Abrahamic religions to be able to continue to do so.  The Umayyad created the jizya taxation wherein those who were not Muslim paid a percentage to the dynasty to live in lands ruled by the Caliph. Women, children, those deemed mentally unstable, or those only temporarily living in the lands were not required to pay. In some cases, those who were Jewish or Christian were treated as second-class citizens or did not have enough to pay the jizya, and they converted to Islam. The jizya extended even when the Umayyad invaded Gibraltar in 711 CE and began extending into modern-day Portugal, Spain, and even into parts of France.

              In 732 CE, the slow downfall of Al-Andalus began as the Charles Martel and his army defeated Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi at the Battle of Poitiers (Tours) and the Islamic army was driven out of modern-day France. For the next centuries after many quarrels, revolts and Caliphate changes, the only remaining area of Al-Andalus was Emirate of Granada. Granada was also home to many Muslims and Jews who were fleeing the persecution of the Reconquista, which had grown immensely deadly by this time. In 1469, the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon beckoned the fall of the last domino in Al-Andalus. The Crown declared a war on all Muslims and later Pope Sixtus IV declared the war a “crusade”. Efforts to extinguish all non-Catholics from Iberia intensified. The Treaty of Grenada was signed November 25, 1491, and the city of Granada fell on January 2, 1492. Per the treaty, the Capitulations of 1492 allowed Muslims still residing in Grenada could continue practicing their religion. However, Spanish promises of tolerance did not last. By 1502, the Crown began forced conversions on all who practiced any religion other than Catholicism and various sentencing for those who refused. Those who refused were expelled or killed. This lasted for another two centuries before Spain believed it had eradicated Islam.

              In the video, one ISIS member says, "With God's permission, Al-Andalus will once again be the land of the caliphate." When we look at what transpired in Barcelona and Cambrils this month, it is clearly an act of terrorism. There is a dark history regarding Islam, especially throughout Europe. But there is no justifying the mass murders of citizens no matter how well you gift wrap your rhetoric in victimhood.  

Image depicting a Jewish cantor reading the Passover story in Al-Andalus, from a 14th century Spanish Haggadah. Artist Unknown.

Juana I of Castile, Spain's Mad Queen

              Catherine of Aragon is perhaps the most well-known of Spanish monarchs. She was intelligent, elegant, devout in her religion, and compassionate. She was once wed to Arthur, Prince of Wales but quickly after their wedding he suddenly passed. Catherine subsequently wed Arthur’s younger brother, the notorious Henry VIII. Their marriage ended in 1533 much to Catherine’s chagrin, due entirely to Henry’s inability to think with his head. But I digress. While Catherine had much of Europe’s attention, her sister, Juana I of Castile, was struggling while trying to cope with the sudden deaths of her mother, brother and then husband. All of this while suffering an apparent mental illness.

            Juana was by all accounts an extraordinary child. She excelled at everything she attempted. She was a marvelous dancer, she was fluent in several languages, and was considered quite attractive with her fair features. Like most European princesses, she was arranged to be married. After a proxy marriage in 1496 and soon sixteen-year-old Juana was headed for Flanders (Northern Belgium) to be with her husband, Philip, Count of Flanders and Duke of Burgundy. It wasn’t until after their marriage, Juana’s mental state would come into question.

            Juana loved Phillip immensely and she wanted to be with him always. Phillip loved carnal extravagance. Before his marriage to Juana, he had already at least one illegitimate child and his marriage was mostly one of convenience as it was financially beneficial to all parties. Spain did not appeal to Phillip. It was melancholy and drab. Juana’s parents, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, devout in their religion, sat in unadorned thrones in dark robes while Phillip dressed in the height of fashion. Phillip wanted to live a lavish life—and he had his eye on the throne of Castile.

            In 1501, Philip and Juana traveled to Spain in hopes of addressing the Cortes of Aragon to petition for their inheritance of the throne of Castile. After the deaths of Juana’s sister Isabella and Isabella’s young child, Juana suddenly became an heiress of several countries but Philip did not think she would be able to rule due to her mood instability. He claimed she was prone to violent tantrums and mood swings and couldn’t possibly be able to rule. Eventually the Cortes declared Juana the Princess of Castile and Philip her consort. But Philip quickly grew tired of Spain and its religious fervor. After a violent argument in 1502, Philip left Spain—and a pregnant Juana—and headed home.

            Upon learning of her husband’s sudden departure, Juana became desolate. She had to be locked away for her own safety after multiple attempts to flee after him. She suffered fainting spells and periods of inconsolable sobbing at the thought of Philip back in Flanders, cavorting with young maidens while she was heavily pregnant and alone in Madrid. Soon, their fourth child, Ferdinand, was born she left Spain to be with her husband against the wishes of her parents who had come to despise Philip, his selfish desires, and his adoration for France.

            In 1504 Queen Isabella I of Castile died suddenly and as per her wishes, her daughter Juana became Queen regnant. She was to co-rule with her father, Ferdinand II, and Philip was fervently against his father-in-law ruling at all. Juana’s father reigned in her stead, as stated in the will of Isabella, while Juana remained in Flanders with her husband. Ferdinand tried everything to keep Philip from taking thrown, including appealing to the Cortes and even re-marrying to his own French great-niece, Germaine de Foix (also the niece of Louis XII) in hopes of producing a new heir as quickly as possible. But he was unable to achieve this before Juana and Philip made their way back to Spain in late 1505 to claim the throne. Again, Philip brought Juana’s mental stability into question. Her tantrums and severe, uncontrollable mood swings were becoming worse. Ferdinand reluctantly agreed to allow Philip to rule in Juana’s stead and he immediately retired to Aragon.

            Just a few months later tragedy struck. Philip died from typhoid fever leaving a very pregnant (and increasingly unstable) Juana to rule alone. It’s reported that she had the coffin of Philip opened five weeks after his death after rumors his body had been stolen. Once the coffin was opened, she thrust herself upon Philip’s corpse and began kissing his feet. She had to be forcibly removed and taken back to her room.

 Spain was quickly falling into disarray as Queen Juana tried to take control of her country. After months of famine and plague ravaging the country, Ferdinand returned to the throne and reigned, although Juana kept the title of Queen. The heir-apparent was named as Charles I, Juana and Philip’s French-raised son, who would later become Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.

            After the death of Juana’s father, Charles I was made co-ruler of Spain along with his mother. But her mental health was quickly declining. Charles wanted supreme control of Spain and had his mother confined to a convent Tordesillas for the remainder of her life where she suffered severe paranoia atop her already abundant instability. She believed the nuns were plotting against her life. Soon she could not feed or bathe herself and she suffered was insomnia which most certainly added to her instability. She remained confined within the convent until her passing on April 12, 1555 at the age of 75.

            Juana I of Castile was a brilliant woman who suffered immensely in her lifetime. But was she “mad” as she most often referred to? Perhaps. It must be noted that Juana’s grandmother, Isabel of Portugal, had similar instances of intense mood swings. It seems quite probably that Juana did suffer some type of mental illness, but it also seems likely that this was inhibited by her husband’s selfish ways and later the back-to-back-to-back deaths of her sister, mother and then husband. Whatever the causes may be, Juana (the mad) of Castile is a fascinating and immensely significant character, not only just in the history of Spain, but of Europe as a whole.

Philip (The Handsome) and Juana I.

The Mystery of the First European Settlement in the United States

Two years ago, I was doing some research on something completely unrelated to history and stumbled upon the name “San Miguel de Gualdape”. This peaked my curiosity and I did some reading and discovered that San Miguel de Gualdape was the very first European settlement in what would later become the United States of America. Founded in late 1526 by Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, as granted by King Charles V, the settlers who inhabited the settlement endured disease, famine, and skirmishes with local indigenous peoples before bailing. There was even an uprising of the African slaves brought to the settlement against their owners, the first documented slave uprising. The settlement lasted about three months and had dwindled from about 500 settlers (including men, women, children, clergy, and African slaves) to barely 150. Even the founder had died at this point.

One of the most interesting aspects of San Miguel de Gualdape, is that it’s location is heavily disputed. For decades, archaeologists have combed the coast of South Carolina in search of any indication of the 16^th century Spanish settlement. The settlement was originally thought to be located off the Winyah Bay area of South Carolina near the Hobcaw Barony, but searches of the area only yielded artifacts of much later settlements. Some archaeologists have pegged the actual location much further south near Savannah. Recently, archaeologists from South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology or SCIAA have begun re-examining the searches of the Hobcaw Barony from the early 1990s to gain a more in-depth look at the location of the ill-fated settlement.

The clandestine story of San Miguel de Gualdape was of particular interest to me, not only as a student of European History living in the states, but I live just an hour or so away from Hobcaw Barony so this is all a local mystery for me. There are actually many other Spanish settlements within the United States, including another here in South Carolina called Santa Elena located near Beaufort. (You can read more about Santa Elena at https://santa-elena.org.) To find out more about San Miguel de Gualdape by checking out Between the Waters, a collaborative blog with SCETV on the history of South Carolina from an anthropological perspective. 

(Image from usg.edu, the University System of Georgia.)