Juan de Pareja, Afro-Spanish Artist From the Court of Phillip IV

    

                Spanish Baroque painter, Juan de Pareja’s life is enigmatic. Born into slavery around 1606 in the city of Comarca, near Antequera, his lineage is somewhat mysterious. It’s widely believed he was born to a young woman of African descent and a white Spanish father, possibly Moorish.[1] He came to be owned by painter, Diego Velazquez, lead artist in the court of King Phillip IV, around 1630, acting as his assistant. Sometime around 1631, Velazquez freed Pareja and the two worked together in his studio until Velazquez’ death in 1660. Pareja spent most of his life in Velazquez’ shadow, but on his own he was a magnificent painter in the Baroque style that was popular during Spain’s Golden Age. Over his lifetime, and after, he became the subject of many works of art. Diego Velazquez, himself painted a portrait of Pareja in 1649. He’s been the subject of many other famous artists’ works, including Salvador Dali. There are only ten existing known works of Pareja’s in the world. One of them, his portrait of King Philip IV, is on display at the Columbia Museum of Art in Columbia, SC. The few known works by Juan de Pareja, show the complex and intricate work that so many artists of his era, and others, tried to achieve, but he remains relatively unknown.

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[1] "Juan de Pareja," Encyclopædia Britannica, January 30, 2018, , accessed March 09, 2018, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-de-Pareja.

Portrait of Pareja by Diego Velazquez, ca. 1649.

Portrait of Juan de Pareja Adjusting a String on His Mandolin by Salvador Dali, ca. 1960.

Capela dos Ossos: Portugal's Chapel of Bones

Above the white-painted brick entrance to Capela dos Ossos, is a sign that reads, “Nós ossos que aqui estamos, pelos vossos esperamos.” Roughly, We bones, are here, waiting for you.” Capela dos Ossos is Portugal’s Chapel of Bones.

In 16^th century, the small city of Évora, Portugal was seemingly overwrought with cemeteries. In a period of growth, these cemeteries were taking up vast amounts of potentially valuable land. The area’s Franciscan monks were allotted the task of interring the remains elsewhere. However, the monks had a different idea.

The city of Évora in the few centuries since it’s Reconquest from Moorish rule was thriving. Especially under the rule of Manuel I and John III in the very late 15^th century through the beginning of the 16^th century. It had become an epicenter for the arts and humanities. However, the area monks grew troubled at the cities growth and at the resident’s fixation on material possessions.

Once the monks were given the task of relocating the remains for the cities many cemeteries (some accounts estimate the city had over 40 separate cemeteries), they came up with a plan to both move the remains, but also send a message to the city they felt was becoming corrupt. This is when they built the “Chapel of Bones”.

Capela dos Ossos is an interior chapel within Évora’s Igreja de São Francisco (Church of Saint Francis) made of white-painted brick—and bones. Nearly 5,000 sets of remains adorn the chapel’s walls, floors, and ceilings. Areas not covered with bones, are bricks painted with various images reflecting death. In one area of the Chapel, the remains of a child dangle from ropes overhead.

So, what is the dark lesson that those monks aimed to teach? They aimed to teach the population about the transitory nature of material goods and the inevitability of death for everyone—wealthy or otherwise. The idea is furthered by a poem, written almost 300 years later by local parish priest, Father Antonio da Ascencao, that is hanging from one of the Chapel’s pillars. It reads:

Aonde vais, caminhante, acelerado? Pára...não prossigas mais avante; Negócio, não tens mais importante, Do que este, à tua vista apresentado. Recorda quantos desta vida têm passado, Reflecte em que terás fim semelhante, Que para meditar causa é bastante Terem todos mais nisto parado. Pondera, que influido d'essa sorte, Entre negociações do mundo tantas, Tão pouco consideras na morte; Porém, se os olhos aqui levantas, Pára...porque em negócio deste porte, Quanto mais tu parares, mais adiantas. por Padre António da Ascenção

Where are you going in such a hurry traveler? Stop … do not proceed; You have no greater concern, Than this one: that on which you focus your sight. Recall how many have passed from this world, Reflect on your similar end, There is good reason to reflect If only all did the same. Ponder, you so influenced by fate, Among the many concerns of the world, So little do you reflect on death; If by chance you glance at this place, Stop … for the sake of your journey, The more you pause, the further on your journey you will be. by Fr. António da Ascenção (translation by Fr. Carlos A. Martins, CC)

Erected almost 500 years ago, Capela dos Ossos, continues to stand as a dark reflection on life’s inevitabilities. It helps visitors to contemplate what is most important in life and to help them look past their material possessions and to look inward.

"Capela dos Ossos Évora, Igreja de São Francisco." Visit Evora. December 26, 2017. Accessed February 20, 2018. http://www.visitevora.net/capela-ossos-evora/.

The Fight for Catalan Independence: A Timeline

If you follow world news at all, you’re at least somewhat aware that back in October, the region known as Catalonia declared independence from Spain. Just as quickly as this happened, the central Spanish government declared this move illegal and even arrested Catalan officials for rebellion. Over the past two-three months, more and more developments have arisen and frankly, it’s kind of confusing. Let’s begin with a bit of Catalan history to help explain the Catalan fight for independence.

9^th-15^th Century

The area of and around Barcelona (which would become the capital of Catalonia) was established in the 9^th century by Charlemagne to create a safeguard around what was remaining of Catholic Spain or the Frankish empire, and to separate itself from the Muslim-ruled areas of Spain and Portugal. Muslim rule did not decline in Spain until after 1492. Around this time, the rules of Aragon acquired Catalonia, although they allowed its inhabitants to keep their own identity, which even this early was very different from that greater Spain.

17^th-20^th Century

Following the Thirty Years War, Catalans grew increasingly hostile with Spanish leadership. Catalan peasants were forced to house Castilian troops, who were less than wonderful houseguests. This, paired with the growing debt to fund the war, Catalans revolted against the crown in an uprising known as “Corpus de Sang”. Their slogan was “Long live the land, death to bad government!”. This began The Reaper’s War, which briefly led to Catalonia’s first succession. Under French protection, Catalonia briefly declared itself a republic before it was re-occupied by Spanish troops. The 18^th and 19^th centuries both saw a similar tug-of-war for Catalan independence. Napoleon even briefly annexed Catalonia to France from 1812-1813 amidst the First Carlist War, another piece of Spain’s divisive history. This gave birth to the rise of Catalan nationalism in the first part of the 20^th century, leading to a cultural renaissance. Until 1936.

The 20^th Century

In 1936, General Francisco Franco (Bahamonde) came into power as Caudillo of Spain following the Spanish Civil War (For brevity’s sake, we’ll say “caudillo” basically means dictator here). While left-wing Spanish Republicans fought to keep Franco’s rule from affecting Catalonia and other regions that were once autonomous, Franco was able to run them out in 1939—thwarting the left-wing resistance all over Spain. Under his rule, all of Spain saw abolishment of various liberties. But throughout Franco’s reign, Catalonia saw an utter obliteration of its culture and language. Thousands of Catalan activists are exiled from Spain or even executed until the death of Franco in 1975.

The authoritarian state ended with the ascension of Juan Carlos I of Spain as King of Spain in 1975 after Franco’s death. He even dismissed high-ranking officials who wanted to continue authoritarian rule. In 1979, Catalonia was given a statute of autonomy and Catalan was recognized as a nationality. He also made Catalan a joint official language of Spain with Spanish. Catalonian even elected its own regional government.

21^st Century

              From 2009-2011, Catalonia hold various non-binding elections regarding their independence from Spain. However, in 2010 Spain’s central government in its capital, Madrid, decide that there is no “legal” basis for recognizing Catalan as an official nationality, much the Catalan’s disappointment. This came at a time as Spain is affected greatly by the Eurozone crisis. Catalonia even asked Spain for a bailout at this time. There’s growing social unrest as these events culminate.

From 2013-2016, a power struggle between the Spanish capital of Madrid and the Catalan capital of Barcelona begins to come to a head as Catalan parliament begins series talks of independence. In 2015, Catalonia begins the processes of seceding from Spain, and Spanish central courts quickly revoke the bids to secede. Throughout 2016 and 2017, we see the capitals and heads of state clash. Growing social unrest climaxes when, in October, Catalan declares independence from Spain. Spanish authorities physically intervene, and Spain declares direct rule. Catalan officials are arrested, and many are still incarcerated as the Catalan separatist party declares victory in elections and look to move forward with seceding from Spain, as of December.

              It remains to be seen how this crisis will pan out in 2018. Catalonia says it is moving forward after it’s October referendum to declare independence. Every week we seen new implications for Spain, Catalonia and Europe overall in this predicament. Earlier this week, the football world was up in arms regarding Barcelona player Lionel Messi, who said he would become a free agent if Barcelona is no longer part of the Spanish league. The Spanish government has numerously stated they would revoke Barcelona’s participation in the league. Clearly, football isn’t going to stop Catalonia from achieving its goal of independence, but it does show how this decision is affecting various aspects of European culture. We will continue to watch and chronicle this fight for independence as it grows increasingly tense. 

Changes and such.

You may have noticed I have changed the name of this blog. I have decided to include greater Spain in my posts. All of Spain and Iberia are greatly important to the globe. The Spanish Empire had many settlements in the Southeastern United States (including San Miguel de Guadalupe, which I posted about a few months ago. I plan to revisit this subject soon). Therefore, I felt the need to encompass all of Spain into my blog.

The title, obviously if you're a history/literary nerd, relates to Don Quixote. The original stories written by Miguel de Cervantes about the fictional hidalgo, Alonso Quixano, in his search for adventure in 16th-17th century Spain.

About my absence for the past few months: I have taken on extra classes and, of course, it was the holiday season. Who isn't busy this time of year? I've also taken on some new responsibilities in my real job. Unfortunately, I had to put posting on the back burner. But alas, I am here now. I should have a new post up in the coming days.

Thanks for reading!

In 1946, Salvador Dali did several sketches and paintings inspired by Don Quixote. I was EXTREMELY excited to see most of them, in addition to his Alice in Wonderland paintings, last spring as the exhibit came to the Columbia Museum of Art in Columbia, SC. They. Were. Amazing.

How the Spanish Inquisition Created the Witch Stereotype

            It’s officially fall and Halloween is just a few weeks away. Halloween means a lot of different things to many different people but an image that is synonymous with Halloween is the clichéd image of the witch. Witches have been depicted throughout history in many different forms. However, the iconic portrayal of the witch, at least in the Western world, is that of an older woman with a straw broom and a black cat. But where did that depiction originate?

            King Ferdinand II of Aragon and his wife, Isabella of Castile, established the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 to combat religions they felt were a threat to Catholicism. Spain and the Iberian Peninsula had long been dominated by the Moors who allowed other religions to be tolerated (for a small fee, of course) since 711 A.D. with the invasion of the Umayyad Caliphate. By the end of 1492, the last Islamic domino (Grenada) had fallen. Essentially, by this time, anyone not practicing Catholicism was considered a heretic and many of them were imprisoned, tortured and executed. But throughout the Inquisition, many normal facets of European life were being molded by the Catholic church to equate to acts of what they deemed evil. One of these facets was the job of the alewife.

            For over a century, the job of making and selling ale, or beer, belonged, for the most part, to women—single women. Most of them were either unmarried or widowed and brewed ale to pay their debts. And most of these women kept cats around. This was for two reasons. One, the cats were great company while you were working alone all-day brewing, but perhaps the more important reason was to keep the mice at bay. Mice were rampant through many villages in Europe and could get into the grain used in the ale, so the cats were most certainly a business asset.

            Another essential part of the job of the alewife was to let people know you are selling. In an era when many citizens could not read, shops used various symbols instead of the large signs on business awnings we see today. You may be familiar with three sphere symbols and that it represents pawnbrokers or pawn shops. For alewives, it had to be something they had on hand and they chose the broom. A straw broom was leaned against the front of a home to indicate that there was an alewife here. If the broom was turned upside down and leaned in the same manner, it meant there was fresh ale. In addition to this marketing tactic, alewives also commonly wore a tall, wide-brimmed hat to make themselves more identifiable in public. However, these strategies did not bode well for these women.

            During the Spanish Inquisition, these women were soon deemed as unholy. An unmarried woman making spirits? Galivanting around town with no husband or chaperone? There were rumors circulating that the women were “witch doctors” and were poisoning men with their spirits or were just seen as unholy for their behavior. The caricatures of these women in newspapers portrayed them as the pointy-hat-wearing, broom-riding witches that we see in everything from Looney Tunes to Halloween shops. Soon these women were likened to the same as the heretics being prosecuted due to the Inquisition. Eventually, many of these women were tried for heresy or were told they were no longer allowed to brew ale. Meaning, men soon took over the spirit industry—and the growing wealth from that practice. Another unfortunate fatality of the Spanish Inquisition. 

 Sketch of Mother Louise, a very popular alewife in the 14th century.